2024年6月11日发(作者：)
风景名胜
江南洞天福地景观布局特征
Analysis on Landscape Layout of "Caverns of Heaven and Place of Blessing" in Jiangnan
苗诗麒 / MIAO Shi-qi
金荷仙
*
/ JIN He-xian
王 欣 / WANG Xin
摘 要：
江南洞天福地是以道教神仙信仰和江南地区独特的自然与人文条件为基础，在融合了古人心中理想景观模式的基础
上，形成的独具江南特色的景观。从风景园林的视角出发，对江南洞天福地外围的自然环境空间和内部建筑空间进行综合性的
布局分析。总结出江南洞天福地的外围自然环境空间是以古人心中的理想景观和理想栖息模式布局为主的，而内部建筑空间则
以“洞-宫”轴线对称的院落式、以洞为“天”的“天路历程”式、依洞而建的“洞宫一体”式、背山面水的“风水佳穴”式这
4种主要布局模式为主。最后，讨论了江南洞天福地的景观特征。
关 键 词：
风景园林；洞天福地；景观布局；江南
文章编号：
1000-6664(2017)05-0056-08
中图分类号：
TU 986
文献标志码：
A
收稿日期：
2016-12-10；
修回日期：
2017-03-13
基金项目：
国家自然科学基金重点项目“杭州地区风景园林空间小气候测试及分析”(编号51338007)和浙江农林大学校发展基金
人才启动项目“康复花园的研究与实践”(编号2014FR080)共同资助
Abstract: Caverns of Heaven and Place of Blessing in Jiangnan is a unique landscape which is formed based on the immortal faith of
Taoism and the unique natural and cultural conditions in Jiangnan, and is fused with the ideal landscape mode in the minds of the ancients.
This article conducts a comprehensive layout analysis on its exterior natural environment space and interior architectural space from the
perspective of landscape architecture. It comes to a conclusion that, the exterior natural environment space of the Jiangnan "Caverns of
Heaven and Place of Blessing" is based on the ancients' ideal landscape and habitat layout pattern, while the interior architectural space is
mainly based on four layout patterns: courtyard-style, symmetrical by the axis of "cavern - palace"; "the pilgrim's progress" style, cavern as
"the shrine"; "cavern and palace integration" style, built along the cavern; "geomantic and admirable cavern" style, fronting water and with
hills on the back. The final part of the article is a discussion of the landscape characteristics of the Jiangnan "Caverns of Heaven and Place
of Blessing".
Key words: landscape architecture; Caverns of Heaven and Place of Blessing; landscape layout; Jiangnan
“洞天福地”是道教徒心中的神仙居所和人间仙
境。在道教的神仙体系中，共有十大洞天、三十六小洞
天和七十二福地。“洞天福地”多实指名山胜地，因其
为神仙真人的居住之所而被誉为人间仙境
[1]
。“洞”即为
“通”，意为通达上天之所，在此修炼可成天仙；“福
地”作为仅次于“洞天”一级的修仙之地，意为有福之
地，在此修炼可受福度世，修成地仙
[2]
。
虽然洞天福地最初仅仅是道教神仙信仰的现实依托，
但是在2 000多年的发展演变中，广受政治、经济、文
化、艺术、科学等因素的综合影响而日趋多元化，道教建
筑、道教宫观及其周围的园林化环境最终也成为洞天福地
的一部分。所以，对江南洞天福地景观布局的研究不能仅
仅停留在山体、洞穴或者宫观建筑层面，而应从宏观和微
观两方面入手，对江南洞天福地周围的自然环境空间和内
部建筑空间进行综合性的布局分析。
*
通信作者(Author for correspondence) E-mail: 172682295@
1 外围环境景观布局
1.1 围合+豁口
“围合+豁口”是江南洞天福地外围结构空间布局的
典型，这是一种周边围合、前有开口、适当遮蔽的景观结
构
[3]
。总体来看，这种布局模式充分满足了道教徒对山中
修炼场地所需的庇护、捍域、隔离和空间辨识等多重功能
的需求。最为典型的有第九大洞天林屋山洞、第三十四小
洞天天目山洞(大涤洞)。
大涤洞是以“陶渊明模式”为理想景观的山间盆地
式布局，主要结构特征为“走廊+豁口+盆地”(图1)。
大涤洞处四周群山围合而成山间小盆地，小盆地面积约
3km
2
，只能从东北面山谷曲折而入，山间道路与溪流可
以视作与外界沟通的走廊结构，整体地势自北向南逐渐递
升，水自南向北注入南苕溪。此种空间具有“世外桃源”
的典型特征，即基址四周以山体围合并与外界相对隔离，
56
仅有一处豁口与外界相通，就如同魏晋诗人陶渊明在《桃花源
记》中所描述的景象：“林尽水源(走廊)，便得一山，山有小
口(豁口)，仿佛若有光，便舍船，从口入。初极狭，才通人。
复行数十步，豁然开朗(盆地)。”这种结构为历代文人墨客所
寻访、追求，获得了最广泛的共鸣，并反复作为中国文人山水
园林之主题，甚至在皇家园林中再现
[4]
。
林屋山洞位于太湖东南的洞庭西山，是以“蓬莱仙岛”为
理想景观的布局方式(图2)，即山体四周众水环绕、非神仙而不
可即，有丰富的动植物及矿物资源，就如同《列子·汤问》中
对海上仙山的描述：“无风而洪波万丈，不可得往来通知，唯
飞仙有能到其处耳。”“其上台观皆金玉，其上禽兽皆纯缟，
珠之树皆丛生，华实皆有滋味，食之皆不老不死。”同样，洞
庭西山由34个大小不同的岛屿组成，矿产资源极为丰富，太
湖石也多产于此，山上不仅四季有花、四时有景，更产有味道
鲜美的水果，如柑橘、杨梅、青梅、枇杷、桃、李、杏等，是
名副其实的花果之乡。此种结构对中国传统园林布局的影响深
远，园林中主要模式“一池三山”便源于此。
总体来说，一个与外界相对隔离的围合空间可以给人安
全感。所以，修道者在选择洞天福地时更倾向于尺度适宜的
山间盆地或尺度适宜的隔离景观。这种以山或水为屏障、面
向盆地或水面的布局有利于排除种种潜在的威胁，能够随时
防范和应对各种来自外部的危险
[4]
。
1.2 豁口+走廊
“豁口+走廊”本是中国原始人类的栖居模式，但与道教
洞天福地的布局却有着异曲同工之妙：一个尺度适宜的围合空
间与外界环境相对隔离，只能通过豁口与走廊连接外界。其典
型的结构特征为“围合空间并不是绝对封闭的，它们都留有一
些与外界联系的豁口，这些豁口常沿河流、山谷延伸而形成走
廊”
[4]
。豁口和走廊作为内、外物质和信息交流的主要通道，
是捍卫的关键区位，具有明显的防御优势。同时，山间谷地独
特的小气候也是道教修炼的绝佳环境。所以，“豁口+走廊”
也是江南洞天福地的外围结构布局形式，其中以第八大洞天句
曲山洞(华阳洞)、第二十九小洞天仙都山洞(仙水洞)最为典型。
华阳洞处于积金峰与大茅峰所夹的山谷走廊之上，面对元
符万宁宫、前临楚王涧、背靠大茅峰前的老虎岗，四周幽洞密
集，怪石林立，山水秀美，是第一福地中的福地(图3)。其布
局特点是：前临山谷走廊，背靠临近大山而又相对独立的小山
丘，这种布局既保证了内外交流，又占据了捍卫的关键点，能
够及时排除潜在的危险，为山林修道提供必要的安全保障。同
时，山间谷地盛行山谷风，使白天山坡中多云雾及降水，且谷
地地势低洼，土壤湿度和空气湿度都比较高，使得山间走廊具
有高密度的动植物资源和丰富的水资源，即使是干旱季节，也
可为道教修炼提供必需的水源和生活物资。
Scenic Spot
1
2
图1 天目山洞(大涤洞)空间布局图
Fig. 1 The landscape layout of Dadi Cave
图2 林屋山洞空间布局图
Fig. 2 The landscape layout of Linwu Cave
57
风景名胜
“豁口与走廊”是生物活动最为密集之处，仙都山洞就位
于仙都山与外界相通的走廊——练溪之旁(图4)。仙都山洞又名
“仙水洞”，在步虚山北麓，东有仙都山和步虚山为屏障，南
傍鼎湖峰，洞口面对练溪，形如古镜，史称“镜岩”，因洞内
有泉流出，注于潭中，大旱不竭，而得名“仙水洞”。洞口与
地面存在20m高差，古时需要攀梯而上，周围奇山异水、洞壑
遍地、风光旖旎。作为内外交流的通道，练溪自东北向西南贯
穿整个天都山脉，溪水清澈，溪中有九桥、九堰、九潭，水面
有宽有窄，水流时急时缓。两岸有奇峰一百六、异洞二十七，
人文史迹数不胜数，鼎湖峰、倪翁洞、小赤壁、婆媳岩等景观
均沿溪布设，形成了一条“九曲练溪，十里画廊”的风景线。
汤显祖在《游名山记》中竭尽赞美：“海内十八洞天，环栝千
里，名山以十数……唯缙云仙都为最奇。”此种布局完全符合
原始人对理想栖息环境的选择，水域附近温暖湿润，植被茂
密，小气候怡人，可以为修道者提供充足的生活物资；洞口与
地面的高差能够有效地避免洪涝灾害和猛兽袭击；同时，豁口
走廊结构也是防御、捍卫的最佳场所。
总而言之，古代的交通运输工具落后、生存环境恶劣、信
息传播不畅，因此，修道者在选择山间修炼场所时更倾向于选
择能够与外界进行物质和信息交换的“豁口+走廊”之地，这
种与外界相通的山谷走廊不仅具有良好的小气候环境，并且更
容易获取食物、抵御各类自然灾害的威胁，从而为修道者的山
居生活提供必要的生活和安全保障。
2 内部建筑景观布局
洞天福地的扩展离不开道教宫观的建设。山洞和宫观建筑
的布局因江南丰富的地貌形式而风格多变。笔者通过查阅相关
资料和实地调研，将江南洞天福地内部建筑空间布局总结为以
下4种类型。
2.1 “洞-宫”轴线对称的院落式布局
此种布局整体呈长方形，由数进纵向的三合或四合院落组
成，采用中轴对称形式，同时，各进院落通过建筑的形制、标
高以及庭院空间的不同，营造出依次递进、层次分明的建筑空
间形态
[5]
。一般来说，主题殿堂楼阁均布置在中轴线上，建筑
主从分明、尊卑有序，“洞天”占据中轴线的重心和制高点，
营造庄严肃穆的宗教氛围。次要殿堂如斋堂、厢房等生活场所
布置在侧轴线，整体建筑以多条轴线展开，既严谨又极富变
化。这种布局形式自成院落、小巧灵活，既能够满足各种功能
的需求，又能很好地解决道教祭祀空间、道士精修与生活起居
问题。此种布局形式以委羽山大有宫最为典型。
委羽洞号“大有空明之天”，故其洞口道观名“大有
宫”。该道观始建于晋代，是浙东道教全真龙门派的祖庭。其
占地面积约0.3hm
2
，建筑占地面积约0.15hm
2
，整体呈中轴对
58
3
4
图3 句曲山洞(华阳洞)空间布局图
Fig. 3 The landscape layout of Huayang Cave
图4 仙都山洞(仙水洞)空间布局图
Fig. 4 The landscape layout of Xianshui Cave
Scenic Spot
5
图5 委羽洞大有宫平面图
Fig. 5 The plan of Dayou Palace
图6 大涤洞“天路历程”布局图
Fig. 6 "The pilgrim's progress" of Dadi Cave
称模式，是一组布局严谨的宫殿式建筑群。因地形复杂多变，庭”即为“由地登天”的完整结构。
主轴线并未贯穿，而是在灵霄宝殿处进行转折处理，创造出自所以，道教洞天福地的建设多数以“朝天”思想为中心，
由多变的空间形态。宫观建筑按照其性质、主次和功能用途，以人、地、天的序列结构层层推进，并历经千百年的不断实
分为神殿、斋堂、道舍和园林4个部分。践，最终形成了独具道教特色的“天路历程”式布局。其中，
大有宫以宫门、雷公殿、灵霄宝殿为主轴线，东厢房祖以天目山洞(大涤洞)的布局结构最为典型。
师堂和西厢房乐位堂分布于主轴两侧，以此围合成主轴院落空天目山洞的朝天序列始于通真门，一条“神道”穿越九
间。主轴西侧又是2个与主体院落相连通的四合院落，建筑整体锁山直达大涤洞口处，全程大约20km。在这条漫长的“天路
紧凑连贯、相互陪衬、高低错落、浑然一体。园林部分布置在历程”中，集中着5门、10亭、8桥、55楼观祠阁，以及数不
侧轴院落空间内和宫观外围，因地制宜地将山林、岩石、水体胜数的名石和碑刻。通真门是进入大涤山的出入口，也是天与
等结合在一起，创造出师法自然的优美园林。灵霄宝殿为中轴地的交界之处。杭州城至通真门为地势平缓的平原地带，属
线转折之处，五间开面，单檐歇山顶，雕梁画栋，非凡壮观。“地”的范畴，自通真门开始登山至大涤洞，地势自北而南逐
殿后的三清殿地势增高，与委羽山洞形成第二中轴线，从而形渐递升，水自南而北注入南苕溪，此处属于“天”的范畴。
成整体空间的结穴 (图5)。漫长的干道象征着通达仙境的“天梯”，干道顺着山势和
2.2 以洞为“天”的“天路历程”式布局地形又分为2个层级(图6)。
天路历程是道教名山建设中特有的布局形式，是对昆仑山
第一层级起自通真门起，经通仙桥、九锁山门、会仙桥、
“由地登天”结构的现实模拟。昆仑山作为仙界的象征，属于
元同桥至洞霄宫，这一段为曲径通幽的九锁山道。路随山转，
“天”的范畴，其脚下的天门“阊阖”为天与地的交界，山麓
山随水分，溪路弯弯，曲径通幽，引人入胜。盘区的山道于各
为“地”的范畴。昆仑山又分为上、中、下3层，依次为下层
个峰回路转之处建置各类景观小品或名石碑刻，将人引领至玄
“樊桐”，亦名“板松”；中层“玄圃”，亦名“间风”；上
妙神奇的神仙之境，这一段为通往仙界的过渡之地。
层“增城”，亦名“天庭”
[6]
。由“阊阖”登3个层级到达“天
第二个层级自洞霄宫起，经金仙桥、“天下名山”坊至大
6
59
风景名胜
7
8
9
图7 赤城山洞玉京洞平面图
Fig. 7 The plan of Yujing Cave in Chicheng Hill
图8 1-1剖面图
Fig. 8 1-1 profile
图9 桐柏宫布局图
Fig. 9 The layout of Tongbai Palace
涤洞，全长约0.6km。此段地势较陡，山道两侧竹林茂密，浓
荫覆地，意境深远幽邃，具有较好的空间效果。山道尽头即为
大涤洞，因洞天是仙人所居之处，也是可以通达上天的地方，
所以大涤洞成为整个“天路历程”的终结和朝天的高潮。
如今，大涤洞因淤泥堵塞而无法进入，历史所载的5门、
10亭、8桥、55楼观祠阁现大多不存，但是山道、溪流、丛林
以及以“洞”为天的“天路历程”式格局却保存完好，道教氛
围浓郁。
2.3 依洞而建的“洞宫一体”式布局
从宗教的角度来看，山洞对道教来说意义非凡。山岳是真
气的凝结，山洞则是整个山岳的灵气出入口，道教认为:“乾坤
既辟，清浊肇分，融为江河，结为山岳。或上配辰宿，或下藏
洞天，皆大圣上真，主军其事。” 由此可知，洞天福地是真气
蕴藉之所，生气充沛，在此修炼效果远胜他处。
从景观的角度来看，山洞是道教建筑最原始的表现形式之
一。早期道教的宗教活动包括修炼、科仪(道教术语，指道教
道场法事)和传经等都在天然洞穴中进行。随着道教的兴盛和世
俗化的传播，尤其是统治阶级和高阶士族信道者的加入，原始
山洞已经无法满足宗教活动的需要，由此才出现了道教宫观建
筑。因此，道教建筑与洞穴具有相同的文化内涵，都有使人通
于天地、“反其所生”、回归到“太一”的功能
[6]
；同时道教
宫观建筑也是对仙人所居的琼楼玉宇和金台玉阙的现实模拟。
由此可见，依洞而建的“洞宫一体”式布局将道教建筑与
天然洞穴融为一体，是对“上古穴居而野处，后世圣人易之以
宫室”的延续。此种布局形式以赤城山洞玉京洞和括苍山洞凝
真宫最为典型。
赤城山洞玉京洞，基址位于洞穴内部。玉京洞宽20余m，
深7m，高10余m，洞中央宽阔，两侧渐次收紧，略显湫隘。
60
洞内楼阁始建于北宋，明清后荒废。玉京洞山门面西，上悬“第六洞天匾额”，门帘出自唐代
诗人王维的诗句“山中习静观朝槿，松下清斋折露葵”。宫观占地面积700m
2
，建筑占地面
积420m
2
，东西长约30m，南北宽约8m。其中三清殿、观音殿和一侧厢房均隐于丹崖之中，
另有厢房垂直于洞口而建，整体成三面围合一面开敞之势(图7、8)。洞前或悬崖高挂，或峭壁
陡坡，视野开阔，天台县秀美风光一览无余，田园村舍历历在目，完美展现道家人与自然和谐
共存的人间仙境。
2.4 背山面水的“风水佳穴”式布局
洞天福地与道教风水关系极为密切。姜生曾在《论道教的洞穴信仰》一文中指出:“向往
返还与天地合一之境，寻觅洞室或利用堪舆术发现‘地穴’，因之设立宫观、御修真羔，冀以
回归母体，得道成仙。
[7]
”修道者们寻找山岳之中的洞天福地用的就是堪舆术。所以，江南洞
天福地的景观营造与风水密不可分。
“背山面水、负阴抱阳”是理想风水模式结构的典型特征，“左青龙、右白虎、前朱雀、
后玄武”是“风水佳穴”式布局的标准。对应到具体方位，则是北要有连绵的高山作为屏障
(玄武)，东西要有高高低低的众山体重重围护(青龙、白虎)，南面山脉止落之处要有水脉相依
(朱雀)，穴场地势平坦，与周围环境相对独立和隔离，周边通过狭小的豁口和走廊与外界相连
通，从而形成最佳的风水格局
[8]
。此种布局形式以桐柏山金庭洞天桐柏宫最为典型。
桐柏山位于天台县赤城山西北部12km的栖霞乡境内，昔日为天台山道教宫观最为集中的
一带，其四周分别是玉女、卧龙、紫霄、莲华、玉泉、翠微、华林、香琳和玉霄9座山峰，道
书称此处为“不死之福乡，养真之灵境”。
桐柏宫前溪水潺流，处于一个小盆地中自成气候，其四周九峰环绕，选址完全符合中国
传统风水的“四灵兽式”布局(图9)。桐柏宫整体建筑坐北朝南，北玄武方位有香琳、玉霄二
峰与天台山最高峰华顶峰相依；左右两边是2条低岭岗阜的“青龙”“白虎”相围护——左有
卧龙峰、华琳峰为“青龙”，蜿诞绵长、气势高昂；右有紫霄峰、翠微峰为“白虎”，俯首
静卧、环抱围护；南“朱雀”方位有玉女、玉泉；西北方又有莲华、秀丽奇绝。青龙、白虎
前还有一对山，即左剑山、右印岩，象征文武齐全。两岩开阔处为水口，发源于玉霄峰的女
梭溪终年流水不断，回绕青龙山脚，流经三口井状深潭，泻为巨瀑，即为桐柏瀑布。东晋文
学家孙绰在《游天台山赋》中，提到“理无隐而不彰，启二奇以示兆：赤城霞起而见标，瀑
飞流以界道”。
综上，桐柏宫前有河流合抱，蜿蜒曲折，基址恰处于山水环抱的中央。此种布局不但具备
“左青龙、右白虎、前朱雀、后玄武”的风水格局，还达到了“玄武垂头、朱雀翔舞、青龙蜿
蜒、白虎驯俯”的整体效果，是典型的仙家格局。
3 结语
总而言之，洞天福地虽然最初源于道教神仙思想，但在2 000多年的世俗化发展中，逐渐
与道教建筑和宫观相结合而日趋多元。不仅如此，道书中所列之洞天福地，绝不仅限于实体的
洞穴或者山体。于道教而言，洞穴只是山岳的一个外在“气口”，由群山所环绕的以洞穴和道
教宫观为中心的整个山川环境，才是洞天福地的实际范围。
所以，以“道教仙境”为立意，以山岳丰富的自然空间内涵及其或藏或露、或隐或显的局
部自然空间作为洞天福地和宫观建设的基址，以古人心中的理想景观和理想栖息模式为布局方
式，同时结合其他风景资源、气象资源和人文史迹，共同形成了江南洞天福地别具一格的景观
形态。
注：文中图片均由作者绘制。
Scenic Spot
参考文献：
[1] 付其建.试论道教洞天福地理论的形成与发展[D].济
南：山东大学，2007.
[2] 李育富.道教洞天福地之新探[J].乐山师范学院学
报，2005，25(10)：114-116.
[3] 俞孔坚.回到土地[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三
联书店，2014.
[4] 俞孔坚.理想景观探源：风水的文化意义[M].上
海：商务印书馆，2004.
[5] 李欣韵.成都代表性道教宫观环境研究初探[D].北
京：北京林业大学，2014.
[6] 周维权.中国名山风景区[M].北京：清华大学出版
社，1996.
[7] 姜生.论道教的洞穴信仰[J].文史哲，2003(5)：54-
62.
[8] 李晟.仙境信仰研究[M].成都：巴蜀书社，2010.
(编辑/李
旻
)
作者简介：
苗诗麒/1991年生/女/安徽宿州人/浙江农林大学风
景园林与建筑学院风景园林学13级硕士/杭州园林景
观设计有限公司风景园林师(杭州 311100)
金荷仙/1964年生/女/浙江东阳人/博士/浙江农林
大学风景园林与建筑学院教授，硕士生导师/中国风
景园林学会副秘书长/研究方向为风景园林历史与理
论、植物景观规划设计/本刊社长，常务副主编(临安
311300)
王 欣/1973年生/男/浙江嵊州人/博士/浙江农林大
学风景园林与建筑学院副院长，副教授/研究方向为
风景园林历史与理论(临安 311300)
61
风景名胜
Analysis on Landscape Layout of "Caverns of Heaven and Place of Blessing" in Jiangnan
MIAO Shi-qi, JIN He-xian
*
, WANG Xin
To Taoist disciples, Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing
are the habitations of immortals and the earthly paradises.
According to the celestial concepts in Taoism, there are a total of
10 major caverns of heaven, 36 minor caverns of heaven and 72
places of blessing. The Chinese character
dong
(literally cavern)
sounds like
tong
which literally means a path or channel; therefore,
the caverns are deemed as the places from which one can get into
heaven, and people can become heaven deities after cultivating
themselves in those caverns.
Fudi
literally means the blessed lands,
and in Taoism it is believed that people can become earthly deities
after cultivating themselves there.
In the beginning, Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing
served only as the tangible basis for immortal-worshipping in
Taoism. However, the concept has become more extensive in
its evolution for over 2 000 years, and ultimately Taoist buildings,
Taoist temples and monasteries, and their surrounding natural
environment have all become a part of Caverns of Heaven and
Places of Blessing. In view of that, when studying the landscape
layout of Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing in regions
south of the Yangtze River, we should not only focus on mountains,
caverns or Taoist temples and buildings, but also make a
comprehensive analysis of the layout by taking into account the
natural surroundings and the architectural space.
1 Landscape Layout in Surrounding Environment
1.1 Enclosure with an Opening
"Enclosure with an Opening" refers to the layout where
the sacred sites are surrounded by mountains or waters with
an opening at the front and are properly shielded from the
outside world. With this layout, the cultivation site can achieve
multiple functions in sheltering, defense, segregation and space
identification, etc., which fulfills the requirements of Taoist followers
for the cultivation site.
Dadi Cavern is in a layout like a basin surrounded by
mountains, which perfectly matches the ideal landscape described
by the prominent poet Tao Yuanming (Fig. 1). In other words, the
site is enclosed by mountains with only one opening to the outside
world, which means it is almost completely isolated from the
outside world. The landscape layout is just like what is described
in the famous essay
A Tale of the Peach Blossom Spring
by Tao
Yuanming, a prominent poet in Wei and Jin Dynasties.
Linwu Cavern is in an ideal layout of the unearthly Penglai
Island (Fig. 2). According to legend, Mount Penglai, surrounded
by waters, boasts a variety of plants and animals and is abundant
62
in mineral resources, but it is only accessible to celestial beings.
This is the origin of the "one pond surrounded by hills" design in
classical Chinese garden layout.
1.2 Openings and Passages
"Openings and Passages" reflects the habitation mode of
primitive people in China. The layout is featured by a space not
completely enclosed; in fact, there are some openings leading
to the outside world and the openings are often extended into
passages along rivers or streams in the valley.
Located in the passage through the valley between Jijin Peak
and Damao Peak, Huayang Cavern faces the distinguished Perfect
Tranquility Temple, with Ravine of King Chuin the front and the
Tiger Hillock of the Damao Peak against its back. With densely
scattered caves around, the cavern is surrounded by fantastic rock
formations in a picturesque landscape. Therefore, Huayang Cavern
is considered as the blissful land in the First Place of Blessing,
namely Maoshan Mountain (Fig. 3).
Xiandu Cavern is next to Lianxi Stream, a passage which
connects Xiandu Mountain with the outside world (Fig. 4). This type
of passage through the valley is not only endowed with a pleasant
microclimate, but also makes it easier to obtain food and defend
against various natural disasters. In this way, the passage offers
security to followers who dwell in the mountain for cultivation.
2 Landscape Layout of Interior Buildings
2.1 Courtyard-style, symmetrical by the axis of "cavern -
palace"
The interior architecture is generally of a rectangle layout
where structures are arrangedon three sidesor four sides of a
row of courtyards in a symmetric manner along the central axis.
Meanwhile, the courtyards are of different sizes and structures
around different courtyards are in different shapes and heights,
which creates an architectural space with structures neatly-
arranged in different rows.
The DayouPalaceTemple near the Weiyu Cavern is built in
this layout. The major halls and pavilions are all arranged in the
central axis according to their respective importance. The cavern of
heaven is located in the center of the axis in a commanding height,
which creates a solemn atmosphere for religious rituals. The less
important halls like the abstinence hall and living rooms, etc., are
arranged on two sides of the axis. In this way, structures are built
along parallel axes in a rigorous while varying pattern (Fig. 5).
2.2 "The pilgrim's progress" style, cavern as "the shrine"
Pilgrimage to Heaven is a unique layout in Taoist sacred
mountains, and it is a real simulation of the "earth to heaven"
layout of the legendary Kunlun Mountain. Most of the Caverns of
Heaven and Places of Blessing are constructed with the theme
of "pilgrimage to heaven" and thus structures are progressively
arranged in the sequence of the three realms of man, earth and
heaven.
The "pilgrimage to heaven" route in Cavern of Mount Tianmu
starts from the Tongzhen Gate (literally Gate to the Truth), and
extends to Dadi Cavern across Jiusuo Mountain through a
"heavenly path", with a total length of about 20km. Dadi Cavern is
the end and also the climax of the pilgrimage. In this long route, 5
gates, 10 pavilions, 8 bridges, 55 Taoist temples and towers and
numerous sacred stones and steles are scattered (Fig. 6).
2.3 "Cavern and palace integration" style, built along the cavern
Caverns are of great significance in Taoism, since mountains
are regarded as the condensed forms of
qi
(literally breath or air),
the essential life force in Taoism, and caverns are the outlets and
inlets of
qi
in mountains. In this way, a cavern is the embodiment
of the most primitive Taoist structures. In the early stage, various
Taoist activities including cultivation, rituals and sutra-preaching,
etc., were conducted in natural caverns.
This layout manages to integrate Taoist structures and natural
caverns into a whole. In Yujing Cavern of Chicheng Mountain,
the structures are located inside the cavern. The Sanqing Temple
(literally Temple of Three Immortals), the Hall of Avalokitesvaraand
the wing rooms on one side are hidden in red cliffs, and the wing
rooms on the other side are built vertical to the opening of cavern;
in this way, the cavern is enclosed on three sides with its opening
on the fourth side (Fig. 7
,
8). The cavern faces domineering
precipices and steep cliffs, and at its opening, one can get a bird's
eye view of the picturesque landscape of cottages and farms in
Tiantai County. In a sense, the cavern is really an earthly fairyland
which embodies harmony between Taoist followers and nature.
2.4 "Geomantic and admirable cavern" style, fronting water and
with hills on the back
The location of Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing
in the regions south of the Yangtze River is closely related to
the traditional
fengshui
theory. Typically, the cavern is featured
by a location with waters in the front and mountains against the
back, a location where it faces the yang (the sunny side) and lean
against the yin (the shadowy side). On its north, there should be
undulating mountains to serve as its shield (indicating the deity
Xuanwu
in Taoism), on the east and the west, the cavern should
be surrounded and protected by rolling ridges (indicating deities
Scenic Spot
Qinglong
and
Baihu
, literally Black Dragon and White Tiger), and
to its south, there should be waters at the foot of the mountains
(indicating the deity
Zhuque
). Besides, the cavern is often on a flat
terrain and relatively isolated from the surrounding environment,
and it is connected to the outside world through narrow openings
and passages on its side. In this way, the cavern is in an optimal
location according to
fengshui
theory.
The Tongbai Temple in Tongbai Mountain faces winding rivers
in the front and is embraced by mountains on four sides (Fig. 9).
The nine surrounding peaks are respectively Yunü, Zixiao, Lianhua,
Yuquan, Cuiwei, Hualin, Xianglin and Yuxiao, and together they
form a location that meets the requirement of "
Qinglong
on the left,
Baihu
on the right,
Zhuque
in the front, and
Xuanwu
at the back"
according to the
fengshui
theory. Besides, with rolling streams
(
Zhuque
) in the front, undulating mountains on the left and the
right (
Qinglong
and
Baihu
) and domineering peaks against its back
(
Xuanwu
), the cavern is in an ideal location for earthly fairylands in
Taoism.
3 Conclusion
In a word, Caverns of Heaven and Places of Blessing, as
recorded in Taoist scriptures, are by no means limited to physical
caverns or mountains. In Taoism, a cavern is only an external "gas
opening" of a mountain. The concept of Caverns of Heaven and
Places of Blessing actually encompasses the integral area with
caverns and Taoist temples in the center and mountains and rivers
in the surrounding.
(Editor / LI Min)
Biography:
MIAO Shi-qi, female, born in 1991 in Anhui, Master's
degree student (Year 2013) in the College of Landscape
Architecture, Zhejiang Agriculture & Forestry University
(Hangzhou 311100)
JIN He-xian, female, born in 1964 in Zhengjiang, Ph.D.,
professor of Zhejiang Agriculture & Forestry University, CHSLA
Undersecretary General (Lin'an 311300)
WANG Xin, male, born in 1973 in Zhengjiang, Ph.D.,
professor of Zhejiang Agriculture & Forestry University (Lin'an
311300)
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